Molecules {corticotropin releasing factor} (CRF) can release corticotrophin, vasopressin, and angiotensin II, using negative feedback. CRF causes insomnia, low appetite, low sex drive, depression, and anxiety. CRF affects hypothalamus but not enkephalin and neurotensin release.
Phosphate bonds between adenine-pentose-sugar fifth carbons and third carbons make rings {cyclic AMP}| (cAMP).
purpose
Cyclic AMP transfers one phosphate group for phosphorylation. cAMP increases active transport, degrades stored fats, uses tissue carbohydrates, increases stomach hydrochloric acid, disperses melanin, and stops platelet aggregation. cAMP mediates cell processes that increase vesicle mobility, membrane fusion, and release and cause chemotaxis, morphogenesis, and gene expression.
process: hormones
Hormones that use cAMP include calcitonin, chorionic gonadotropin, epinephrine, follicle-stimulating hormone, glucagon, luteinizing hormone, melanin-stimulating hormone, norepinephrine, parathyroid hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, vasopressin, corticotropin, and lipotropin. Hormone attaches to cell-membrane receptors that are similar to beta-adrenergic catecholamine receptors.
process
Receptors couple to G proteins and adenylate cyclase. Receptors activate membrane G protein by phosphorylation and make many cyclic AMPs. cAMP activates protein kinases, which phosphorylate other enzymes. cAMP amplifies hormone effect 100 times.
bacteria
In E. coli, cAMP stimulates flagellin synthesis, cell motility, and food-seeking behavior. E. coli protein starvation increases cAMP.
plants
cAMP regulates light-induced growth responses in giant single-celled fungus Phycomyces sporangiophore, in which dopamine and epinephrine stimulate adenylate cyclase.
protozoa
In unicellular organisms, cAMP is sensitive to catecholamines. In Tetrahymena pyriformis protozoa, cAMP regulates cell growth and glucose metabolism, as epinephrine and serotonin excite adenylate cyclase.
amoeba
Starvation causes cAMP release by myxamoebas.
fruitfly
Fruitfly learning mutants have bad cyclic-AMP or cyclic-AMP-receptor genes.
Human proteins {growth factor} can control growth.
Hypothalamus thyroid-hormone releasing factor (THRF), luteinizing-hormone releasing factor (LHRF), and somatostatin growth-hormone release-inhibiting factor {hypothalamic hormones} release hormones from anterior pituitary gland.
Posterior-pituitary-gland neurohypophysis hormones {vasopressin}| can constrict artery smooth muscle and so cause kidney to conserve fluid {antidiuretic hormone, vasopressin}, affect pair-bonding in male rodents, and consolidate memories. It affects locus coeruleus and can cause memory to be unforgettable. Vasopressin and oxytocin are similar. Vasopressin can treat shock from low blood pressure.
Liver and fat enzymes {11 beta HSD-1} can activate cortisol and make more triglycerides.
Fat cell hormones {adiponectin} can affect insulin and lipid metabolism.
Receptors {cannabis receptor} {CB1 receptor} that bind cannabis can stimulate appetite.
Liver proteins {FGF21 protein} can metabolize fat.
Gut peptides {ghrelin} can stimulate arcuate-nucleus appetite region.
Two hypothalamus peptides {orexin} {hypocretin}| can come from preprohypocretin and bind to lateral-hypothalamus receptors. They increase appetite and cause arousal. Hypocretin mutations can cause mammalian narcolepsy. Normal hypocretin is in Golgi organs, and mutated hypocretin is in smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
Fat-cell molecules {leptin}| can bind to hypothalamus receptors and suppress appetite. Leptin decreases arousal. Leptin stimulates satiation region and inhibits arcuate-nucleus appetite region.
Hormones {obestatin} can suppress appetite.
Fat-cell hormones {retinol-binding protein 4} can inhibit insulin receptors.
Cells release proteins {uncoupling protein 1} to ask for energy. Stimulating beta3-adrenergic and PPAR-nuclear receptors increases uncoupling protein 1 release.
Circulating hormones {calcitonin}| can regulate calcium.
Hormones {parathormone}| can liberate calcium from bone.
Anterior-pituitary hormones {growth hormone}| (GH) can increase bone, increase body growth, raise metabolism rate, and make glucose from glycogen. Growth hormones enter cells directly and bind to cytoplasm receptors, which send molecules to cell nucleus to bind to DNA sites and express or repress genes. Growth hormone helps generate and maintain nerve-pathway connections.
Hormones {trophic hormone} can generate and maintain nerve-pathway connections.
Anterior-pituitary hormones {thyrotropin}| can increase thyroid growth and thyroxin production.
Hypothalamus and anterior-pituitary hormones {thyrotropin-releasing hormone}| (TRH) can act locally to release thyrotropin. Small quantities induce euphoric states and can be antidepressants for treating affective disorders. Medulla-oblongata hormones can release hypothalamus thyrotropin.
Thyroid hormones {thyroxin}| can increase basal metabolism rate. Thyroxin requires iodine.
Hormones {adrenal corticoid hormone}| can regulate kidney Na+ and K+ reabsorption.
Kidney hormones {aldosterone}| can control blood pressure.
Hormones {antidiuretic hormone, endocrine}| (ADH) can increase kidney water reabsorption and so block water loss.
Mammal hypothalamus supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei synthesize octapeptides or nonapeptides {arginine vasopressin}| (AVP).
functions
AVP regulates water balance. Decreased blood volume or increased plasma osmotic pressure causes AVP secretion. AVP causes blood-vessel constriction, maintaining blood pressure in cases of decreased blood volume. AVP stimulates intestinal motility, lowering fluid loss. AVP increases cell permeability to water in kidney collecting tubules. AVP enhances sodium-chloride active transport in renal medullary tubules.
AVP secretes in pain and stress. AVP stimulates adrenocorticotropic hormone release, triggering adrenal steroid secretions and stress responses.
AVP can affect mammal pair bonding and infant care.
receptors
AVP binds to kidney-tubule, vascular smooth-muscle, pituitary, and intestinal cell receptors.
receptors: baroreceptor
Reduced blood volume decreases blood pressure and stimulates low-pressure stretch baroreceptors in left atrium, aorta, and carotid. Baroreceptors stimulate glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves to hypothalamus, which liberates AVP from pituitary nerve terminals.
receptors: osmoreceptor
Increased plasma concentration and higher osmolality stimulate osmoreceptors in hypothalamus, resulting in AVP secretion.
Hormones {mineralcorticoid} can regulate salts.
Hormones {posterior pituitary neurohormone} can act directly on kidneys, to decrease urine formation and water loss.
Hormones {prodynorphin} can act on posterior pituitary hormones, to control blood volume and regulate blood pressure.
Neurons {sympathetic nervous system, hormones} can express leucine-enkephalin, methionine-enkephalin, adenosine, neuropeptide Y, cholecystokinin, luteinizing-hormone releasing hormone (LHRH), VIP, and vasopressin-like molecules.
Atrial glands secrete A and B peptides, which depolarize abdominal-ganglion electrically coupled neurons {bag cell}. Bag cells secrete peptides, including egg-laying hormones, into blood to affect central neurons and ovotestis.
Enzymes {catechol-O-methyltransferase} (COMT) can inactivate catecholamines.
Hormones {epidermal growth factor}| (EGF) can support brain-cortex neurogenesis. Cell-membrane outsides have EGF receptors. EGF binding stimulates cell growth and division. Cancer cells have many EGF receptors.
Hormones {fibroblast growth factor}| (FGF) can support cerebral-cortex neurons, especially striate-cortex neurons. At high concentrations, FGF enhances neurogenesis. At low concentrations, FGF increases neuron and glia survival rates. Fibroblast growth factor 8 organizes cortex. Human genes {fibroblast-growth-factor receptor L1 gene} (FGFRL1 gene) can be similar to flatworm genes {nou-darake gene} {Ndk gene} that repress neuron division.
Hormones {microphthalmia-associated transcription factor} (MITF) can regulate eye development, blood-cell development, and skin pigments.
Cyclized 20-carbon unsaturated fatty acids {prostaglandin}|, with two carbon-chain tails, come from all tissues, derive from fatty acids, have over 14 varieties, lower blood pressure, make smooth muscles contract, and block hormones.
types
Prostaglandins can degenerate corpus luteum and regulate activities induced by hormones. Prostaglandin E1 affects inflammation, contracts smooth muscles, stops stomach hydrochloric-acid production, opens bronchi, stops fat breakdown, constricts pupils, relaxes blood vessels, and reduces blood pressure. Prostaglandin I2 inhibits platelet clumping and prevents arterial-lining damage. Endoperoxides regulate cyclic-AMP metabolism and are prostaglandin intermediates.
comparison
Aspirin, arthritic drugs, and anti-inflammatory drugs are similar to prostaglandins.
polarity
Prostaglandins change polarization over the long term.
metabolism
Enzymes {prostaglandin synthetase} can catalyze arachidonic-acid oxidation to prostaglandin H2. Enzymes {prostaglandin hydroperoxidase} can oxidize xenobiotics. Cyclooxygenase-2 and other cyclooxygenases (COX) can generate prostaglandin. Aspirin, ibuprofen, rofecoxib, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug inhibit cyclooxygenases.
Molecules {scotophobin} can make animals afraid of the dark.
Brain, cerebrospinal-fluid, and cerebral-blood peptides {sleep peptide}| can induce sleep.
Brain and gut peptides {bombesin} can lower body temperature, control gastric secretions, and stimulate appetite.
Intestinal hormones {peptide YY3-36} (PYY) can work in hypothalamus to reduce appetite.
Gut, hypothalamus, medulla-oblongata, pons, substantia-nigra, and spinal-cord dorsal-root peptides {substance P}| (SP) can be in fine pain fibers and affect peripheral sympathetic catecholamine neurons. Substance P releases serotonin from terminals inhibited by serotonin. Substance P makes long lasting excitation by slow, excitatory postsynaptic potentials and can cause pain. Substance P increases preprotachykinin mRNA. Sympathetic-neuron activity suppresses substance P. Serotonin enhances substance-P release to excite spinal cord.
Gut, cerebral-cortex bipolar-cell, and submandibular salivary-gland postsynaptic parasympathetic-neuron peptides {vasoactive intestinal peptide}| (VIP) can regulate neuronal mitosis, process outgrowth, and sympathetic-neuron survival.
Three genetically different peptide families {endorphin}| include proopiomelanocortin (POMC), proenkephalins, and prodynorphin. One large exon encodes peptides derived from proenkephalin and POMC, so this gene encodes related behaviors.
locations
Pituitary-gland intermediated lobe and anterior lobe synthesize POMC. Cortex, spinal-cord neurons, adrenal medulla, and gut make proenkephalins. Gut, posterior pituitary, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, and brainstem make prodynorphin.
types
Alpha-endorphin soothes. Beta-endorphin causes analgesia. Gamma-endorphin irritates.
biology
Endorphins are neurohormones or neurotransmitters. Endorphins bind to opiate receptors to inhibit pain-information transmission and cause analgesia. Peripheral pain-receptor stimulation thresholds increase, and central pain perception becomes less sensitive. CREB regulates endorphin production.
Pituitary hormones {encephalin} {enkephalin}| can have five-amino-acid opioid cores, bind to morphine-binding sites, and inhibit pain-information transmission. Enkephalins can acetylate, amidate, phosphorylate, glycosylate, and methylate. Methionine-enkephalin and leucine-enkephalin are peptides, act as opioids, and are in area postrema, locus coeruleus, medulla oblongata, pons, retina, superior olive, spinal cord, and ventral pallidum. Methionine-enkephalins are beta-endorphin precursors. Leucine-enkephalins are dynorphin precursors.
functions
Sympathetic-nervous-system enkephalins control blood vessels, regulate local blood flow and pressure, and cause analgesia.
Basal-ganglia, hypothalamus, pituitary-gland, and adrenal-gland peptides {opiate peptide}| {opioid peptide} can act as analgesics when in cerebrospinal fluid. Repeated stressful stimuli release opioids. Basal ganglia opiate peptides include dynorphin, beta-endorphin, met-enkephalin, leu-enkephelin, and kyotorphin. Bony fish and higher animals have opiate systems.
Hormones {proenkephalin} can act on posterior pituitary hormones, to control blood volume and regulate blood pressure. Cortex neurons, spinal-cord neurons, adrenal medulla, and gut make proenkephalins.
Anterior pituitary, mediobasal hypothalamus arcuate nucleus, and solitary-tract nucleus make opiate peptides {proopiomelanocortin} (POMC). POMC releases ACTH, endorphins, and melanocyte-stimulating hormones. POMC influences adrenal cortex and blood pressure.
Medulla oblongata, solitary tract nucleus, and adrenal-gland medulla release biogenic amines {adrenaline} {adrenalin} {epinephrine}| that can inhibit or excite neuron metabolism for seconds.
biology
Epinephrine stimulates sympathetic nervous system and increases heart activity and muscular action. It releases glucose from liver and makes glucose from glycogen. It increases heart rate and constricts most blood vessels but dilates coronary and skeletal muscle arteries. It dilates bronchi, relaxes smooth muscle, contracts sphincters, and contracts spleen.
causes
Stress, fear, and flight-or-fight response release epinephrine.
norepinephrine
Norepinephrine reacts similarly.
Adrenal-gland medulla, lateral tegmentum, locus coeruleus, medulla oblongata, and sympathetic neurons release biogenic amines {norepinephrine}| {noradrenaline} {noradrenalin} that can inhibit or excite neuron metabolism for seconds.
biology
Norepinephrine stimulates sympathetic nervous system and increases heart activity and muscular action. It releases glucose from liver and makes glucose from glycogen. It increases heart rate and constricts most blood vessels but dilates coronary and skeletal muscle arteries. It dilates bronchi, relaxes smooth muscles, contracts sphincters, and contracts spleen.
causes
Stress, fear, and flight-or-fight response release norepinephrine.
epinephrine
Epinephrine reacts similarly.
Testis and adrenal cortex make dehydroepiandrosterone, androstenone, and testosterone {androgen}|, which cause male sex characteristics. Androstenones can be pheromones. Androstadienone has odor, detected by receptors {OR7D4 receptor}.
Placenta hormones {chorionic gonadotropin}| can maintain pregnancy.
Neuropeptides {egg-laying hormone} (ELH) can regulate sea-snail egg laying. Atrial glands secrete A and B peptides, which depolarize bag cells. Bag cells secrete multiple peptides, including egg-laying hormones, into blood to affect central neurons and ovotestis.
Estrone and estradiol {estrogen}| are from adrenal cortex, are steroids, and stimulate growth and female sex characteristics. Estrogens enter cells directly and bind to cytoplasm receptors, which send molecules to cell nucleus to bind to DNA sites and express or repress genes.
Anterior pituitary hormones {follicle stimulating hormone}| (FSH) can stimulate Graafian-follicle and seminiferous-tubule growth. FSH first secretes at age 7 to 8 and reaches adult levels at age 11 to 13.
Hormones {lutein hormone releasing factor} {luteinizing-hormone-releasing hormone} (LHRH) can bind to forebrain and hypothalamus, release luteinizing hormone in hypothalamus, help sexual arousal and mating, stimulate sex drive, and cure oligospermy.
Pituitary hormones {luteinizing hormone}| (LH) {interstitial cell-stimulating hormone} (ICSH) can control progesterone or testosterone production and release, which first secretes at age 7 to 8 and reaches adult levels at age 11 to 13.
Hypothalamus peptides {oxytocin}| (Vincent du Vigneaud) [1953] can have nine amino acids, control uterus contraction, affect pair-bonding in female rodents and nursing babies, control milk release, peak at orgasm {cuddle hormone}, and aid forgetting. Oxytocin receptors are in hypothalamus, amygdala, nucleus accumbens, and anterior-cingulate subgenual area. Pitocin is synthetic oxytocin. Vasopressin and oxytocin are similar.
Ovary hormones {progesterone}| can regulate estrous and menstrual cycles. Progesterone enters cells directly and binds to cytoplasm receptors, which send molecules to cell nucleus to bind to DNA sites and express or repress genes.
Pituitary hormones {prolactin}| can maintain estrogen and progesterone secretion, stimulate milk production, and control maternal instincts.
Ovary and placenta hormones {relaxin}| can relax pelvic ligaments for birth.
Adrenal-cortex and testes hormones {testosterone}| can stimulate growth and male sex characteristics. Testosterone enters cells directly and binds to cytoplasm receptors, which send molecules to cell nucleus to bind to DNA sites and express or repress genes.
Fish have molecules {vasotocin} that reduce ovulating-female fear of males. In mammals, vasotocin has evolved to oxytocin and arginine vasopressin.
Hormones {gamma-melanocyte stimulating hormone}| (gamma-MSH) can aid steroid production.
Pituitary intermediate-lobe hormones {intermedin}| can stimulate skin pigments.
Anterior-pituitary hormones {alpha melanocyte stimulating hormone} {alpha MSH} {melanin stimulating hormone}| {melanocyte stimulating hormone} (MSH) can aid attention and darken skin by increasing melanocyte pigment production.
Anterior-pituitary hormones {adrenocorticotropin}| (ACTH) {corticotropin} can stimulate adrenocortical cells to synthesize and release glucocorticoid hormones and so make glucose from glycogen, control corticosteroid production, aid attention, and cause cortex analgesia at non-opiate receptors. ACTH amino acids four to seven make short-term memory permanent.
Cortisol and cortisone {corticosteroid}| are from adrenal cortex, convert proteins to carbohydrates, prevent inflammation, increase metabolism rate, increase glycogen storage in liver, darken skin, and stimulate milk production. CYP17 gene modifies cholesterol to make cortisol. Cortisol suppresses lymphocyte interleukin-2 activity. Long-term stress increases cortisol. Adrenal-cortex aldosterone, corticosterone, and deoxycorticosterone regulate sodium and potassium metabolism.
Hormones {glucagon}| can increase liver glucose concentration, decrease liver glycogen production, and decrease other-cell glucose.
Hormones {glucocorticosteroid}| can regulate sugar and protein.
Hormones {insulin, hormone}| can decrease liver glucose concentration, increase liver glycogen production, and increase other-cell glucose. Insulin-like growth factors (IGF) regulate neuron-process growth and mitosis.
4-Zoology-Organ-Endocrine Gland
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Date Modified: 2022.0225